Alpha synuclein AS is a protein located in presynaptic termi

Alpha synuclein (AS) is a protein located in presynaptic terminals of neurons that functions in recycling and storage of neurotransmitters [17]. Under conditions of inflammation and oxidative stress, AS proteins misfold and accumulate into Fusidic Acid sodium salt [81], [90]. The aggregates of misfolded AS oligimorize into Lewy bodies. These aggregates are cytotoxic, disrupt connections between neurons, and deplete levels of neurotransmitters [81]. AS also reacts with dopamine quinones leading to accumulation of toxic fibrils in the dopaminergic neurons [80], [89], [90]. Accumulation of AS and Lewy bodies have a detrimental impact on mitochondria activity, causing an elevation of ROS production and deficit in metabolic activity [57]. Neural dopamine can become oxidized if there are high levels of MG derived AGEs [49]. These dopamine quinones have impaired activity, and contribute to the degeneration of neurons [18], [90]. MG accumulation can lead to production of ROS and depletion of NADPH, which is critical for reducing glutathione for use in the glyoxalase pathway [81], [91], [92]. The decline in synthesis of dopamine also causes disruption in vesicle transport, and makes the cell prone to damage and mtDNA mutations [84]. There is a correlation between progression of disease and biomarkers of oxidative stress [93], [94]. Post mortem studies of PD brains show high levels of oxidized substrates, and colocalization of AGEs to Lewy bodies [89]. AD and PD have different clinical pathologies but share similar causes and symptoms and Aβ plaques can be commonly found in PD brains [19]. Patients with PD have been found to have depleted levels of GSH, and disruption of GSH metabolism has been found to progress neurological disorders [36].
Autism spectrum disorder Autism Spectrum Disorder is a multifactorial neurodevelopmental disorder categorized by impairment in communication, language, social behaviors and relationships [24]. The basis for ASD is still misunderstood, but there is evidence of cellular and metabolic dysfunction influenced by mitochondrial activity [95]. There are also physical abnormalities and alterations in ASD brains. Over 100 genes contribute to ASD, mutations in any of these can lead to ASD [20]. All genes participate in different brain functions controlled by the brain areas, which affect emotional formation, learning and memory, cognitive control, and social orientation [96]. Autistic brains also have a lowered level of viable GABA producing Purkinje neuron cells [97]. MG derived AGEs and ROS will modify the Purkinje neurons, leading to their ultimate death [98]. The OS exhibited in ASD can be a cause of loss of these integral neuron cells [53]. Combined with the high amounts of lipid peroxidation, the OS exhibited in ASD brains could be alleviated by glyoxalase dependent MG detoxification [99], [100] DNA and mtDNA mutations and abnormalities are common in ASD [97], [101]. These can cause impaired electron transport chain (ETC) and mitochondria function (membrane potential/polarization, molecule transport, mito protein translocation, and apoptosis) [102], [103] ASD is also categorized by an abnormal immune response; this can have negative effects on brain growth factors, development, and neural transmitters [52], [104]. Patients with autism demonstrated activated micro/astro glia and increased levels of proapoptotic cytokines [52]. Patients of ASD had significantly lower ratios of mitochondria proteins bcl-2/bak, which is an indicator of increased cell death and decreased function [24]. Abnormal neural brain maturation found in ASD is influenced by mitochondria dysfunction and MG mediated cellular signaling [97], [101]. ASD can lead to chronic immune activation, causing OS in the ASD brain [101]. These can be caused by disequilibrium in MG and glyoxalase signaling [105]. Patients with autism have lower reduced glutathione levels, however it is not known if it is due to a deficit in synthesis or regeneration of glutathione [100].