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  • Cortisol targets many organs and tissues and has certain

    2022-05-11

    Cortisol targets many organs and tissues and has certain effects on metabolism, including promoting glycolysis. It can cross the blood cdc42 barrier and act centrally to regulate HPA axis activity by activating negative feedback mechanisms effectively, cortisol inhibits its own production (Fairchild, 2012). Though cortisol acts at glucocorticoid (GR) and mineralocorticoid (MR) receptors, GR is more important than MR for ADHD, because GC/GR could affect the synthesis and metabolism of DA and NE (Kasssel and Herrlich, 2002, Chen et al., 2012). Many studies (Cortese, 2012, Karmakar et al., 2014, Karmakar et al., 2016) support that monoamine neurotransmitters play an important part in the pathogenesis of ADHD. The SHR has been used for decades as a model of ADHD because of its various behavioral phenotypes that mimic the symptoms of ADHD. Its progenitor strain, WKY, is an ideal control for the SHR (Miller et al., 2012). In vivo, SHR had faster DA uptake and lower DA/NE level in the prefrontal cortex than the WKY control group, suggesting that increasing surface expression of DATs may explain the more rapid uptake of DA in the ADHD models (Leo et al., 2003, Langen and Dost, 2011).
    Materials and methods
    Results
    Discussion Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is the most common neurodevelopmental disorder in children. It is also one of the pervasive chronic diseases in school-aged children. However, the pathogenesis and pharmacological mechanism of ADHD are still unknown. Accumulated evidences indicated that ADHD was associated with disturbance of monoamine neurotransmitters. Monoamine neurotransmitters, such as dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NE), play an important role in keeping brain excitability and alertness, which are considered to be the biochemical mechanism of attention (Hui et al., 2010). It has been found (Xiaomei and Yufeng, 2010) that there was imbalance of DA and NE in the urine, serum and cerebrospinal fluid in ADHD children, and the PET scans showed that not only imbalance of DA and NE, but also dysfunction of DA receptor in the brain. Many clinical studies (Cortese, 2012, Karmakar et al., 2014, Karmakar et al., 2016) support that monoamine neurotransmitters play an important part in the pathogenesis of ADHD. Currently nearly all drugs in ADHD treatment are related to modifying monoamine neurotransmitters. In recent years, several studies have revealed that HPA axis was hypo-responsiveness to stress in ADHD children, and the hypo-responsiveness of HPA axis was closely connected with the three core symptoms of ADHD (Van et al., 2009). Previous studies suggested that GC/GR could affect not only the synthesis and metabolism of DA and NE but also the function of DA system. Animal models of schizophrenia after adrenalectomy (Roozendaal et al., 1999) showed that the damaged D1 receptor in the prefrontal cortex could influence the release of DA, leading to working memory impairment. However, when treated with corticosterone, the level of DA would get back to normal. GC acts on β-adrenoceptor–cAMP/protein kinase A (PKA) signaling pathway to facilitate the synthesis and release of NE. NE is released after training mission and bound to ɑ1-adrenoceptor and β-adrenoceptor on the postsynaptic sites. β-adrenoceptor coupled directly to adenylate cyclase (AC) can stimulate cAMP producing and trigger certain reactions that can be adjusted by ɑ1-adrenoceptor. GR coupled with ɑ1-adrenoceptor has an impact on β-adrenoceptor-cAMP system (Kasssel and Herrlich, 2002), and can activate NA system by activating NE nerve cell group in brainstem (Chen et al., 2012). GR can also regulate the transcription The activated GR bounded to glucocorticoid response element (GRE)not only influences gene expression but also disturbs other transcriptional factors, such as NF-kB, AP-1, CREB, etc., which in turn influence the combination of cAMP and PKA regulatory subtypes, consequently, affecting the production and survival of DA neurons and regulating the activity and secretion of DA, that will adjust the function of DA system and help to maintain the normal function of the body (Yang et al., 2007).