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  • Diclazuril Axons are the largest component of WM by volume

    2022-06-09

    Axons are the largest component of WM by volume and are a significant repository of intracellular glutamate that can be releases under ischemic conditions [1,3,4,29,117]. We have recently shown that the principle route by which mature myelinated Diclazuril release glutamate during acute ischemia is via vesicular release [29]. Vesicular docking in axons was monitored via FM6-46 imaging in corpus callosum brain slices (See Fig. 2A), showing that axoplasmic vesicles rapidly dock with the axolemma following initiation of modelled ischemia. The time-course of axonal vesicle docking correlated with the ischemic rise in extracellular glutamate concentration which was sensitive to inhibition of vesicular glutamate loading and docking. Since ischemia-induced vesicle docking occurred uniformly along the axon cylinder which is 99% covered by the myelin sheath, ischemic glutamate must accumulate under the myelin following release via this route. This observation is significant both for the pathophysiology, since it allows for activation of myelinic GluRs within a privileged space that is physically screened from the extracellular space by the outer myelin wraps. Indeed, we have shown that both time and lipid solubility are required of NMDA GluR antagonists if they are to protect the myelin from the ischemic injury resulting from axonal vesicular glutamate release [29].
    Conclusion: potential novel therapeutic strategies
    Introduction The development of the mammalian telencephalon is a highly coordinated process involving the precise regulation of many events including cell migration, proliferation, and differentiation (Guillemot, 2007, Joseph and Hermanson, 2010, Rakic, 2006). These events are largely dependent on progenitor-produced extracellular and membrane-bound signaling factors and in addition on an appropriate intrinsic responsiveness of the stem and progenitor cells to these extracellular signals (Gaiano and Fishell, 2002, Hirabayashi and Gotoh, 2010, Miller and Gauthier, 2007, Shen et al., 2006, Sur and Rubenstein, 2005). The physiological characteristics of subsets of telencephalic neurons can be predicted by their origin, emphasizing the spatial and temporal precision of the developmental process (Batista-Brito and Fishell, 2009, Butt et al., 2005, Xu et al., 2004). Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMP), including BMP4, are highly enriched in the developing telencephalon, and morphogenetic BMP signaling is critical for proper development of dorsal structures such as the choroid plexus and the hippocampal formation (Hebert et al., 2002, Panchision et al., 2001, Shimogori et al., 2004). In addition to BMPs, members of the fibroblast growth factor (FGF) family, such as FGF8, and Wnt factors, such as Wnt3a, have been shown to play pivotal roles in the establishment of dorsal cortical structures (Shimogori et al., 2004, Storm et al., 2006). Telencephalic neural stem cells (NSCs) can be isolated from the anterior neural tube and exposure to BMP4 induces differentiation into astrocytes and mesenchymal smooth muscle cells (Gajavelli et al., 2004, Gross et al., 1996, Kohyama et al., 2010, Rajan et al., 2003, Ravin et al., 2008, Tsai and McKay, 2000). The BMP4-mediated mesenchymal differentiation is plating density-dependent as smooth muscle cells are completely absent after seeding the NSCs at higher densities (Tsai and McKay, 2000). In contrast, astrocytic differentiation of NSCs is supported both at high and low plating densities, albeit BMP4-induced astrocytes display a markedly different morphology depending on plating densities (Rajan et al., 2003, Tsai and McKay, 2000). These influences on the BMP4-induced differentiation events of NSCs have been shown to involve cell-cell contact mechanisms (Tsai and McKay, 2000) and density-dependent regulation of the activation of distinct intracellular signaling pathways (Rajan et al., 2003).
    Results
    Discussion It has long been known that BMP stimulation of forebrain progenitors can induce neuronal differentiation (Li et al., 1998, Mabie et al., 1999). It should however be noted that it is not known whether the progenitors studied in these early reports were multipotent and capable of differentiating into mesenchymal cells. In addition, BMP-mediated neuronal differentiation events have only been studied in conditions that strongly promote neuronal differentiation, such as B27 supplement and neuron-enhancing media (Mabie et al., 1999). In other studies, the progenitor population has shown a clear tendency for facilitated neuronal differentiation as mere withdrawal of mitogens induced neuronal markers in >50% of the cells within 1day of culturing (Li et al., 1998). Virtually all FGF2-expanded telencephalic NSCs have the innate capacity to differentiate into GFAP-positive astrocytes and TuJ1-positive neurons, as demonstrated by experiments in clonal conditions (Jepsen et al., 2007, Ravin et al., 2008). In the present study, we show that FGF2-expanded telencephalic NSCs prepared in similar conditions can differentiate into mesenchymal, astrocytic and in addition also neurons under the same conditions depending only on the seeding density.